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onging to the stimulus phase of the response cycle. Responses occurring during the orienting reflex stage are evoked by novel stimuli and are followed by a refractory period. These responses appear to be largely independent of the organism’s state of motivation, occurring equally well during wakefulness, sleep, and anesthesia. The most common orienting reflex is a change in the activity of the skeletal muscles. For example, orienting reflexes in humans and other mammals are marked by a characteristic constriction of the pupils, an opening of the eyes, and a turning of the head toward the source of the stimulus. These responses appear to be innate or developmentally fixed and not dependent on previous learning experiences.

There is considerable evidence that the orienting reflex is an unlearned response. Saul (1967) studied the orienting reflex response to light in newborn human infants and found that, even within the first 2 days after birth, the infants will show an or ienting response to flashes of light. He also found that a response could be elicited from a small number of older subjects even when they thought that they were exposed to total darkness. Both of these results emphasize the unlearned nature of the orienting reflex.

Although there is evidence that the orienting reflex is an innate response, these reflexes also appear to be modifiable by experience. For example, in one of the early experiments on the orienting reflex (Razran, 1926), it was found that the unconditioned stimulus was not necessary to obtain the orienting reflex in subsequent stimulus presentations. If a neutral stimulus had been repeatedly paired with an orienting reflexeliciting stimulus, and if the neutral stimulus was then presented alone, it would elicit the orienting reflex. Only a few pairings were necessary to establish this conditioned stimulus.

The development of the conditioned orienting reflex has been used to demonstrate behavior conditioning in lower animals and to investigate some of the basic properties of the conditioning process. For example, Pavlov (1928) studied the orienting reflex in dogs and found that the conditioned reflex was strongest when the conditioned stimulus preceded the unconditioned stimulus by an interval of 0.5 to 1 second. This interval was called the optimal conditioning interval. During the optimal conditioning interval, the appearance of the conditioned stimulus signaled the imminent appearance of the unconditioned stimulus. The strength of the conditioned response increased as the number of pairings increased.

The orienting reflex is a simple and basic form of behavior that has been used to demonstrate the processes of both reinforcement and conditioning. The orienting reflex is an example of a genetically transmitted, speciestypical response pattern that is activated when an organism is confronted with a novel stimulus. The orienting reflex is not a goaldirected response. It is not elicited by a specific need state but can occur even when the organism is in a state of deep sleep.

1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the orienting reflex?

(a) It is an innate response.

(b) It is a goaldirected response.

(c) It is elicited by novel stimuli.

(d) It is followed by a refractory period.

2. Which of the following is not a method for establishing a conditioned orienting reflex?

(a) Repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus with an orienting reflexeliciting stimulus.

(b) Presenting a neutral stimulus alone.

(c) Presenting an orienting reflexeliciting stimulus alone.

(d) Pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

3. Which of the following is not a finding from Pavlov’s study of the orienting reflex in dogs?

(a) The conditioned reflex was strongest when the conditioned stimulus preceded the unconditioned stimulus by an interval of 0.5 to 1 second.

(b) The strength of the conditioned response increased as the number of pairings increased.

(c) The orienting reflex is an example of a genetically transmitted, speciestypical response pattern.

(d) The orienting reflex is not a goaldirected response.

4. Which of the following is a key difference between the orienting reflex and the classical conditioning response?

(a) The orienting reflex is elicited by novel stimuli, whereas the classical conditioning response is elicited by conditioned stimuli.

(b) The orienting reflex is an unlearned response, whereas the classical conditioning response is a learned response.

(c) The orienting reflex is followed by a refractory period, whereas the classical conditioning response is not.

(d) The orienting reflex is a goaldirected response, whereas the classical conditioning response is not.

5. Which of the following is not a problem with using the orienting reflex to study behavior conditioning?

(a) The orienting reflex is an innate response.

(b) The orienting reflex can be modified by experience.

(c) The orienting reflex is not a goaldirected response.

(d) The orienting reflex is not a reliable measure of behavior.

2、八字头的皮带是什么牌子

爱马仕 (Hermes)

3、8字皮带扣是什么品牌

Burberry

4、8字扣皮带是什么牌子

8字扣皮带通常没有特定品牌字扣。8是一种皮带扣的类型，而。不是一个特定品牌的名称

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